Explain motivation, how it is influenced, and major theories about motivation

• Illustrate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Describe basic theories of motivation, including concepts such as instincts, drive reduction, and self-efficacy

• Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Explain Carol Dweck's mindsets and how different praise and mindsets can lead to different levels of performance

• Differentiate between growth and fixed mindsets

• Explain how different praise and mindsets can lead to different levels of performance

Describe hunger and eating in relation to motivation, obesity, anorexia, and bulimia

• Describe how hunger and eating are regulated

• Examine the relationship between metabolism, obesity, and health

• Explain the health consequences resulting from anorexia and bulimia nervosa

Describe sexual behavior and research about sexuality

• Understand basic biological mechanisms regulating sexual behavior and motivation

• Explain the contributions of Alfred Kinsey’s and William Masters and Virginia Johnson’s research made to our understanding of sexual behavior

• Describe variations in sexual orientation and gender identity

Explain theories of emotion and how we express and recognize emotion

• Compare and contrast the the Cannon-Bard, James-Lange, Schachter-Singer two-factor, and other theories of emotion

• Describe the role that limbic structures play in emotional processing

• Classify and explain how emotions are recognized and expressed

Essential Concepts

Theories of Motivation

• Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors.

• Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation.

  • More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior.

  • Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors, and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social motives.

  • Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the relationship among multiple motives that range from lower-level physiological needs to the more abstract need of self-actualization.

Mindsets

• Carol Dweck’s research on mindset reveals that an individuals’ beliefs about their own abilities and potential (categorized as either a “fixed” or “growth” mindset) influence their behaviors and decisions in pursuing goals.

• People with a fixed mindset view intelligence as unchangeable, while those with a growth mindset see it as malleable based on effort and experiences.

• A study conducted by Mueller and Dweck aimed to explore how different types of praise influenced children’s mindsets and motivation. They recruited 128 fifth-grade students and gave them a set of matrix problems to solve. The children were then randomly assigned to three groups: ability praise, effort praise, and control. The results showed that children who received ability praise were more likely to choose easy problems and attribute their failures to low ability. In contrast, children who received effort praise were more likely to choose challenging problems and attribute their failures to lack of effort. This study highlights the impact of praise on children’s motivation and mindset, suggesting that praising effort can foster a growth mindset and enhance motivation to overcome challenges.

Hunger and Eating

• Hunger and satiety are highly regulated processes that result in a person maintaining a fairly stable weight that is resistant to change. When more calories are consumed than expended, a person will store excess energy as fat.

• Being significantly overweight adds substantially to a person’s risk of developing health problems such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain cancers, and other medical issues. Being significantly underweight or maintaining unhealthy expectations about weight can also create health problems.

• Genetic predispositions as well as sociocultural factors that emphasize thinness as a beauty ideal can contribute to the development of eating disorders. While most often observed in young females, eating disorders occur across all ages and genders.

Sexual Behavior

• The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in sexual behavior and motivation.

• There is evidence to suggest that our motivation to engage in sexual behavior and our ability to do so are related, but separate, processes.

• Alfred Kinsey conducted large-scale survey research that demonstrated the incredible diversity of human sexuality.

• William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals engaging in sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual response cycle.

• While often interchanged, sexual orientation and gender identity are related, but distinct, concepts. Gender identity refers to one’s sense of being male, female, or nonbinary, while sexual orientation relates to one’s romantic or sexual attraction. Cultural factors influence these issues, and Western societal understanding of gender is evolving to recognize it as a spectrum rather than as binary.

Emotion

• Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

• Various theories have been put forward to explain our emotional experiences.

  • The James-Lange theory asserts that emotions arise as a function of physiological arousal.

  • The Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience occurs simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal.

  • The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory suggests that physiological arousal receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and that these two factors together result in an emotional experience.

• The limbic system is the brain’s emotional circuit, which includes the amygdala and the hippocampus. Both of these structures are implicated in playing a role in normal emotional processing as well as in psychological mood and anxiety disorders.

• Increased amygdala activity is generally associated with the process of learning to fear or an activated fear response. Chronically elevated amygdala activity and abnormally sensitive limbic responses are often observed in individuals who are at risk for or suffering from mood disorders.

• The volume of the hippocampus has been shown to be reduced in individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder.

• The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be universal regardless of cultural background. However, there are cultural display rules which influence how often and under what circumstances various emotions can be expressed.

• Tone of voice and body language also serve as a means by which we communicate information about our emotional states.

Glossary

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise

arousal theory

if we are underaroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of stimulation; if we are overaroused, we will engage in behaviors to reduce our arousal

asexual

individuals who do not experience sexual attraction or have little or no interest in sexual activity

automatic emotional regulation (AER)

the process by which an individual’s emotional response to a stimulus is automatically regulated by the brain without conscious effort or control

bariatric surgery

a type of surgery specifically aimed at weight reduction involving a modification of the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed

basolateral complex

part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory

binge eating disorder

type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress

bisexual

emotional and erotic attraction both to same-sexed individuals and individuals of another sex

body language

emotional expression through body position or movement

body mass index (BMI)

a widely used measurement system for assessing whether an individual’s weight is healthy for their height, calculated by dividing an individual’s weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared

bulimia nervosa

type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

central nucleus

part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity

cisgender

an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their sex assigned at birth

cognitive-mediational theory

our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus

components of emotion

physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experience

cultural display rule

one of the culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable

demisexual

individuals who require an emotional connection in order to develop sexual attraction

distorted body image

individuals view themselves as overweight even though they are not

drive theory

deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis

emotion

subjective state of being often described as feelings

excitement

phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal

extrinsic motivation

motivation that arises from external factors or rewards

facial feedback hypothesis

facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions

fixed mindset

people with a fixed mindset tend to think of intelligence as an “entity”—something that is part of a person’s essential self; the belief that intelligence does not change much regardless of what we do or experience

gender-affirming hormone therapy

use of hormones to make one’s body look more like another sex

gender dysphoria

diagnostic category in DSM-5 for individuals who do not identify as the gender associated with their sex assigned at birth

gender identity

an individual’s sense of being male, female, or another gender

growth mindset

people with a growth mindset tend to think of intelligence as being “incremental”—a quality that can change for better or worse depending on what we do and the experiences we have

habit

a pattern of behavior we engage in regularly 

heterosexual

emotional and erotic attractions to individuals of another sex, also referred to as “straight”

hierarchy of needs

spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization

homosexual

emotional and erotic attractions to individuals of the same sex, also referred to as “gay”, or “lesbian”

instinct

species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned through experience

intrinsic motivation

motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards

James-Lange theory of emotion

emotions arise from physiological arousal

leptin

satiety hormone; a hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate appetite and energy balance by signaling the brain about the body’s fat storage levels

metabolic rate

amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time

motivation

wants or needs that direct behavior toward some goal

obese

adult with a BMI of 30 or higher

orgasm

peak phase of the sexual response cycle associated with rhythmic muscle contractions (and ejaculation)

overjustification effect

intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given

overweight

adult with a BMI between 25 and 29.9

pansexual

individuals who experience attraction in which sex, gender identity, or gender expression do not play a role

plateau

phase of the sexual response cycle that falls between excitement and orgasm

polygraph

lie detector test that measures physiological arousal of individuals as they answer a series of questions

polysexual

individuals who experience attraction to many, but not all genders. Sometimes used instead of bisexual

refractory period

time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm

resolution

phase of the sexual response cycle following orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused state

satiation

fullness; satisfaction

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive

self-efficacy

individual’s belief in his own capabilities or capacities to complete a task

set point theory

assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, that is resistant to change

sex assigned at birth

how one’s anatomy, physiology, hormones, and genetics are classified (typically as male, female, or intersex)

sexuality

people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others; it is the capacity to have erotic or sexual feelings and experiences

sexual orientation

one’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex or gender

social motives

needs for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy

transgender

a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex

Yerkes-Dodson law

simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower

Emotion and Motivation Cheat Sheet from Lumen One Introduction to Psychology, Lumen Learning, https://lumenlearning.com/, CC BY.

Psychology, 2e, OpenStax, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/, CC BY.

David Wiley